c. 1760 - 1840

The New Industrial Powerhouses

The United States, Germany, and Japan became the new industrial powerhouses that surpassed Britain’s heavy industries, while India and the United States overtook Britain’s once‑dominant cotton industry with cheaper labour, larger mills, and rapidly expanding production.

United States - late 1800s: A new giant of railways, steel, mass production, and cotton manufacturing, expanding faster and on a larger scale than Britain’s older industries.

Germany - early 1900s: Modern steelworks, chemicals, and electrical engineering powered rapid growth, backed by strong technical education and research.

Japan - late 1800s to early 1900s: Rapid Meiji‑era industrialisation, followed by highly efficient shipbuilding and manufacturing, made Japan a major global competitor.

India - late 1800s to early 1900s: Low‑cost labour, expanding mills, and a booming domestic textile market enabled India to challenge, and in some regions surpass, Britain’s cotton dominance.